Three experiments explore how presenting a product launch as occurring in the future versus the past affects the information used to evaluate the product. When a product is described as a future event, marketplace conditions and characteristics of the sponsoring company receive consideration, and both types of information influence evaluations. However, with a past launch, only sponsor information receives consideration and guides evaluations (experiments 1 and 2). This temporal frame effect is attenuated when certainty is primed, implying that the uncertainty associated with the future versus the past motivates more comprehensive use of available information in the future (experiment 3).

Three experiments identify conditions under which a brand scandal spills over and negatively affects beliefs about the product category and beliefs about competing brands. Strategies for reducing the likelihood of spillover effects and for responding to scandal spillover are also examined.

We hypothesize that the accessibility of task relevant knowledge determines whether judgments reflect the substance of the information that is brought to mind or the ease of generating and retrieving such information. Our findings indicate that when relevant knowledge is highly accessible or not at all accessible, judgments are based on the content of the information considered. Between these extremes in knowledge accessibility, judgments are based on the perceived ease with which information can be retrieved. This perceived ease is a function of both the number of reasons requested and the wording of the retrieval request.

This article examines strategies for sound brand positioning with emphasis on developing an appropriate frame of reference.

When consumers learn about a new product, cues in the surrounding context have been found to bias their response to the product in two ways. In some instances, judgments of the product are assimilated toward the affect or descriptive implications associated with the context, whereas in other circumstances, responses are contrasted with or adjusted away from the context. We examine how cognitive resources influence whether assimilation or contrast occurs and when such context effects are reflected in subsequent judgments. Building on a model developed by Martin and his colleagues, we propose that assimilation will occur spontaneously during encoding. Contrast will occur only when this contextual influence is viewed as inappropriate and efforts to partial out the context result in overreaction. These encoding effects of context should be evident in later judgments when the nature of either the judgment task or consumers' predisposition toward effortful thought encourage retrieval of the context-encoded information. The results of two experiments support our predictions and lead to a modified version of Martin's model. In this model, the cognitive resources available at encoding determine the type of context effect and the cognitive resources at judgement determine whether the encoding effect of context will be reflected in product evaluations.

Recent evidence suggests that a new product is evaluated more favorably when its attributes are moderately incongruent with an activated product category schema than when its attributes are either congruent or extremely incongruent with the schema. We extend this finding by showing that it obtains when consumers have limited knowledge about the product category. When consumers possess elaborate knowledge about the category, their evaluations are unaffected by the level of congruity but rather are influenced by their schema-based associations to specific product attributes. These findings are discussed in terms of current theorizing related to schema congruity and schema-based inferencing.

Theories of consumer psychology are becoming more complex, with greater attention to variables that preserve context richness, a more humanistic view of the consumer and an extension of the concept of message elaboration. Major areas of research include information processing and judgment, consumer response to advertising and other marketing stimuli and alternative approaches derived from postmodernism. Work on message elaboration has focused on issues such as availability of resources, individual differences and context effects. Issues related to processing output include attitude toward the ad, prediction of behavior, choice processes and satisfaction.

In two experiments we explored how the perceptual distance portrayed in ad pictures affected consumers' ad liking. The findings of Experiment I reveal that ads in which pictures depict distant scenes are preferred to those in which pictures provide a close-up perspective, and that this effect is moderated by sociability such that the advantage of a distant perspective is greater for solitary than for social individuals The results of Experiment 2 suggest that a distant perspective is preferred because it facilitates thoughtful processing and, thereby, allows both solitary and social individuals to engage in elaboration that reflects their inherent interests. By contrast, a close-up perspective evokes a more visceral response, which appears to inhibit performing the ad evaluation task. The purpose of this research is to explore the effect of pictorial distance on ad liking. Ad liking is of interest because it mediates the effect of ad exposure on attitude toward the brand (see Brown & Stayman, 1992). Further, a recent large-scale field experiment documents a strong, positive association between ad liking and product sales (Haley & Baldinger, 1991).

Mandler theorized that the level of congruity between a product and a more general product category schema may influence the nature of information processing and thus product evaluations. Products that are moderately incongruent with their associated category schemas are expected to stimulate processing that leads to a more favorable evaluation relative to products that are either congruent or extremely incongruent. Data from three experiments conducted in new product contexts are consistent with Mandler's hypothesis and serve as a basis for theorizing about the process.

This article examines the widely held view that manipulation checks, measures of process, and repeated operationalizations in different settings are frequently essential for rigorous tests of theory. This Confirmatory Approach to theory testing is contrasted with the Comparative Approach, which asserts that any procedures are adequate if they serve in demonstrating the superiority of one explanation to its rivals. Our analysis favors the Comparative Approach. It is shown that manipulation checks, measures of process, and repeated operationalizations are not necessary nor always sufficient for rigorous tests. They have no special status in relation to other convergence procedures that are accepted by the Comparative Approach for producing rigorous theory tests.

This article examines the widely held view that manipulation checks, measures of process, and repeated operationalizations in different settings are frequently essential for rigorous tests of theory. This Confirmatory Approach to theory testing is contrasted with the Comparative Approach, which asserts that any procedures are adequate if they serve in demonstrating the superiority of one explanation to its rivals. Our analysis favors the Comparative Approach. It is shown that manipulation checks, measures of process, and repeated operationalizations are not necessary nor always sufficient for rigorous tests. They have no special status in relation to other convergence procedures that are accepted by the Comparative Approach for producing rigorous theory tests.

The article focuses on the meaning of consumer research. Rather than defining consumer research, the authors focus on what consumer research should achieve, which is knowledge about consumer behavior. The article proposes three areas of research that can be produced by consumer research: everyday knowledge, scientific knowledge, and interpretive knowledge. The authors then go on to explain that the search for everyday knowledge implies qualitative methodologies; scientific knowledge implies sophisticated knowledge; and interpretive knowledge implies a critical relativistic methodology. The authors argue that because scientific knowledge relies on a methodology that offers scientific progress, it stands apart from the other two forms.

Hypothesized that well-defined internal knowledge will be available if individuals have access to immediate sensory data. When this occurs, an information-aggregation process will guide judgment. In contrast, if individuals lack immediate sensory data, well-defined internal knowledge is unavailable and a self-perception process is used to infer attitude. These predictions were supported in 3 experiments with 276 21-60 yr old females (Exps I and II). The availability of immediate sensory data was manipulated by making either taste data (immediate sensory data) or consensual data (nonimmediate sensory data) available at the time processing was initiated. The attitude process used was detected by examining whether the presence of an incentive had an enhancing effect (information aggregation) or an undermining effect (self-perception) on attitude. Findings show that the availability of well-defined internal knowledge determined whether an information aggregation or a self-perception process guided judgment. The moderating impact of Ss' Self-Monitoring Scale scores on the findings is discussed.

The article presents a commentary on the article "On the External Validity of Experiments in Consumer Research," by John G. Lynch, Jr. The authors contend that the concept of external validity is relatively less important than other forms of validity when the objective of research is to test theory. They explain that external validity is a matter of the applicability of behavioral research. The authors propose an alternative approach that would put external validity on a par with construct and other validity issues in theory tests.

Foot-in-the-door and door-in-the-face are multiple request techniques frequently used to increase behavioral compliance. However, results from experimental research indicate that these techniques may enhance, undermine, or have no effect on compliance. In the authors' research, the notion of information availability is introduced to help specify when multiple request techniques are likely to be effective. Four experiments are reported that test and support the information availability predictions.

Many researchers feel that external validity must be emphasized even in theoretical research. The argument for both a sophisticated and a common sense version of this contention is refuted in this paper, it is concluded that the very nature of progress in theoretical research argues against attempting to maximize external validity in the context of any single study.

This paper examines the role that conceptual models of consumer behavior can play in a marketing audit. Research employing a model of consumer decision making (an expanded version of a normative model developed by Hauser and Urban), to assess the market position of a public transportation system, is reported. Use of this model to design and select strategy and to reassess market position after strategy implementation also is illustrated. The advantages and limitations of this approach to decision making are discussed.

Two distinct types of generalizability are identified in consumer research. One entails the application of specific effects, whereas the other entails the application of general scientific theory. Effects application and theory application rest on different philosophical assumptions, and have different methodological implications. A failure to respect these differences has led to much confusion, regarding issues such as the appropriateness of student subjects and laboratory settings.

The research demonstrates the usefulness of information processing in designing marketing strategy. Two strategies based on information processing theory are shown to be effective in combating the impact of an adverse rumor. The traditional theoretical and intuitive strategy of directly refuting a rumor is shown to be ineffective.

A labeling technique was employed to explore processes underlying the effects of experience. It was found that labeled individuals both behaved and perceived themselves in a manner consistent with their label. However, these effects were mediated by the consistency of the label with the individual's initial self-schema and the availability of other relevant cues. The findings are interpreted in terms of an extended self-perception explanation that incorporates the notion of cue salience.

The convergent, discriminant, and predictive validity of the tripartite model of attitudes is investigated. On the basis of a structural equation methodology, evidence is obtained for convergent validity. Moreover, a factor analysis of the attitude measures and measures of perceived extraneous events and personal and social normative beliefs provides evidence for discriminant validity. Finally, evidence for predictive validity based on actual and intended behaviors is found to be mixed. The implications of these findings for research pertaining to the prediction of consumer behavior are discussed.

Analysis of panel data for two consumer packaged goods indicates that media-distributed coupons and cents-off deals induce brand switching and result in less loyalty when retracted than if no deal is offered. In contrast, package coupons stimulate brand loyalty which is maintained when they are retracted. The extent to which economic utility theory and self-perception theory order these findings is evaluated and the implications of the results for managing demand are discussed.

The relative effectiveness of three influence strategies in gaining acceptance of a new service advocated by either a high or low credibility source was determined. Although the influence strategies did not differ in their overall effectiveness, the optimal strategy varied as a function of level of source credibility. These results were obtained in both personal selling and mass-media-like contexts. The theoretical, methodological, and practical implications of these findings are discussed.

Reply to Robert L. Day's comments on the authors' article in the November 1974 issue f the Journal of marketing Research.

An understanding of ethical issues involved in marketing research may contribute to the quality of research data. This article discusses subjects' rights in marketing research and how their violation may affect the quality of data.

This chapter discusses key concepts related to brand positioning.

This paper is written for a managerial audience. It outlines and illustrates a four step approach for effective scandal management. The approach emphasizes tailoring both the strategic and tactical responses to scandal to characteristics of the scandal.

This book offers a perspective on a variety of issues related to branding. Chapters are authored by Kellogg faculty, as well as senior executives who are affliated with Kellogg.

Edited compilation of papers presented at the Fourth Annual Advertising and Consumer Psychology Conference, held in Chicago, Ill., July 11-12, 1985, sponsored by Division 23 of the American Psychological Association, the Marketing Science Institute, and Needham Harper Worldwide.

The case focuses on positioning a new brand, the Tata Nano. The car has been widely publicized as the world’s cheapest car at Rs.1 lakh. Students must consider the gap between the ultimate target, the huge emerging middle class of Indian consumers, and the limited capacity and distribution available in choosing a target. They also must select between alternative competitive frames and the various points of difference they highlight. The case unfolds in two stages. The first decision point is in 2009, at the launch of the time of the product launch. The second decision point is 18 months later, after production capacity has increased and some product safety issues have arisen.

The case focuses on positioning a new brand, the Tata Nano. The car has been widely publicized as the world’s cheapest car at Rs.1 lakh. Students must consider the gap between the ultimate target, the huge emerging middle class of Indian consumers, and the limited capacity and distribution available in choosing a target. They also must select between alternative competitive frames and the various points of difference they highlight. The case unfolds in two stages. The first decision point is in 2009, at the launch of the time of the product launch. The second decision point is 18 months later, after production capacity has increased and some product safety issues have arisen.

Historically, Terlato Wines International has employed a “house of brands” strategy, whereby the wines it produces and imports are marketed under distinct brand names with minimal mention of the company name. At issue is whether the Terlato name should play a more prominent role in branding.

The case allows the instructor to illustrate the tradeoffs in choosing between a “house of brands” and “branded house” strategy with a contemporary example. It may be used in combination with Terlato Wines International: Managing Rutherford Hill Merlot in a Post-Sideways Market, Case #5-108-001, and Student Supplement: Background Note on the U.S. Wine Market and Terlato Wines International, Case #5-108-002.

In 2005, a wine snob in the critically acclaimed movie Sideways denounced merlot. Subsequently, sales of merlot, including sales for Terlato’s Rutherford Hill merlot, declined significantly. Students are asked to evaluate three strategies—rebranding, cutting price, and launching television advertising—that Terlato is considering to reverse this decline.

The learning objective of the case is for students to explore the challenge of managing a brand when external factors cause a decline in category demand. They also explore the role of pricing and advertising in managing a small luxury brand.

The case should be used with Student Supplement: Terlato Wines International: Background Note on the U.S. Wine Market and Terlato Wines International, Case #5-108-002.

This exercise asks students to develop criteria that Target Stores should use in evaluating strategic brand alliances to support its positioning as a store where you can “Expect More. Pay Less.” Students are then charged with proposing a new strategic partner for Target that meets the criteria they identify. Background information about the Target “guest” and past strategic alliance is provided.

Learning Objective: The case is designed to help students appreciate how brand positioning both guides and is affected by a firm’s strategic partners.

In the (A) case, Trend Micro, an antivirus and Internet content security software provider, accidentally releases a flawed pattern file update that disables users’ computers. The primary impact is on users in Japan where 150,000 customers are affected. As the media press for answers and the stock price plummets, Eva Chen (CEO) and Akihiko Omikawa, president of Trend Micro Japan, must decide how to respond. In the (B) case, the company’s response and subsequent recovery are described. The (A) case allows students to consider a range of crisis management options, including apologizing, sharing information, and compensating harmed customers. Typically, students recommend a less comprehensive and aggressive response than the one Trend Micro actually took (described in the (B) case). The case allows the instructor to illustrate the role of corporate culture in determining a company’s response to a crisis. Trend Micro’s strong customer-orientation and collaborative culture guided its response and led to a full recovery in a short period of time.

Maybelline is the world’s leading mass cosmetic company, with tremendous success and commanding market share, particularly in the “eye make-up” category. But Maybelline also acknowledges a weakness in the strategic “face” segment, most notably in the profitable "foundations" product lines. This case approaches the challenge of successfully growing this important category through looking at every aspect a company would need to make this move, including: consumer marketing strategy; consumer behavior and purchasing patterns; demographic analysis; segmentation and targeting; product management; distribution channels; pricing; advertising; and understanding the competitive environment.

ThoughtWorks, a medium-sized IT systems integrator, was growing quickly but identified “lack of clear positioning around which to build a brand” as the biggest impediment to continued growth. The company had identified features that they believed differentiated them from their competitors and was considering alternative segments to target. Students are asked to choose a target and develop a positioning statement for that target. They are also asked to identify the assumptions underlying their recommended positioning strategy and suggest how market research could help establish the validity of those assumptions.

Before finalizing their positioning strategy, the company undertook qualitative marketing research to test their assumptions about why companies chose ThoughtWorks. The findings of this research prompted them to rethink their positioning strategy. Students are asked to revise the positioning strategy they developed on the basis of the (A) case, taking into account the findings from the marketing research.

This case addresses a new product launch into the emerging interactive television industry and the role of market research in shaping the strategic marketing plan. The case illustrates the challenges of measuring and understanding probable consumer response and adoption behaviors given a technically innovative product offering. The competitive environment is dynamic, with competitors also poised to launch. But this company hopes to retain first-mover advantage, which gives them the burden of educating the right consumers quickly and driving rapid adoption.